The syntax of the Welsh language has much in common with the syntax of other Insular Celtic languages. It is, for example, heavily right-branching (including a verb–subject–object word order), and the verb for be (in Welsh, bod) is crucial to constructing many different types of clauses. Any verb may be inflected for three tenses (preterite, future, and unreality), and a range of additional tenses are constructed with auxiliary verbs and particles. Welsh lacks true subordinating conjunctions, and instead relies on special verb forms and preverbal particles to create subordinate clauses. There are two registers of Welsh, Literary Welsh and Colloquial Welsh; this article primarily describes Colloquial Welsh.
Contents |
The usual Welsh word order is verb–subject–object. In addition to a verb and a subject, which are obligatory in a canonical clause, Welsh typically organizes additional information as follows:
| Verb | Subject | Direct object | Prepositional phrase | Adverb | ||||
| Mi | roddes | i | lyfr | da | i | dad | Eleri | ddoe |
| PART | give-1PS-PAST | I | book | good | to | father | Eleri | yesterday |
| I gave Eleri's father a good book yesterday. | ||||||||
Welsh has a highly-developed system of fronting constituents in focus in which parts of a sentence can be moved to the front for emphasis, rather than stressing them phonetically as English does. Most elements of a sentence can be moved to sentence-initial position.
The subject of a verb causes a soft mutation.
Sentence elements following yn, such as verbnouns, lose the yn when moved initially:
Determiners precede the noun they modify, while adjectives generally follow it. A modifier that precedes its head noun often causes a mutation, and adjectives following a feminine noun are lenited. Thus:
See Colloquial and/or Literary Welsh morphology for more precise details on the mutations and the environments that trigger them.
Genitive relationships are expressed by apposition. The genitive in Welsh is formed by putting two noun phrases next to each other, the possessor coming second. So English "The cat's mother", or "mother of the cat", corresponds to Welsh mam y gath – literally, "mother the cat"; "the project manager's phone number" is rhif ffôn rheolwr y prosiect – literally, "number phone manager the project". Only the last noun in a genitive sequence can take the definite article.
Bod "be" is used for a number of constructions, including equating two noun phrases, using adjectives predicatively, and forming a wide range of grammatical tenses.
One way to equate noun phrases is to use what King (2003) calls "identification forms" of bod, with the word order NP1 – bod – NP2
Alternatively, a verb-initial word order may be used, with the "affirmative forms" of bod and a particle yn which triggers the soft mutation: bod – NP1 – yn+SM – NP2. This construction has both interrogative and negative variations which utilize different verb-forms and require, in the case of the negative, the addition of ddim "not".
The predicative adjective construction uses this same verb-initial construction: bod – NP – yn+SM – adjective.
In addition to the inflected preterite, future, and conditional tense forms, Bod + subject + yn + verbnoun (with no mutation) is used to express a range of other times:
While the present and imperfect have special interrogative and negative forms, the future and conditional forms:
All of these bod constructions may be given perfect meaning by replacing yn with wedi (lit. "after"), while substituting newydd (lit. "newly") for wedi (together with lenition of the verbnoun) expresses what may be termed the immediate perfect ("has just", etc.). Thus:
Welsh has inflected preterite, future, and conditional tenses. These do not take any particle such as yn, but instead soft mutation occurs after the subject: Welson ni gi? "We saw a dog" (where gi is the lenited form of ci "dog"). In negative sentences the soft mutation is instead placed on dim "not": Welson ni ddim ci "We didn't see a dog".
Questions are formed the same way as with the future and conditional bod forms above, as are negative statements except when there is a "specific" noun phrase functioning as the direct object. A specific noun phrase is a pronoun (fi, nhw, etc), a definite noun (yr ardal, y ffilm, etc.), or a noun preceded by a definite adjective (fy nhad, ei chalon hi, etc). In these cases, ddim is replaced by mo (a contraction of ddim o). Thus:
The preterite, future, and conditional can also be formed with the appropriate inflected tense of gwneud "to do" with a verbal noun (again with soft mutation after the subject). The preterite may also be formed with ddaru (which is the third person singular preterite of darfod "to happen"), which does not alter its form.
For affirmative statements with inflected verbs, it is particularly common to attach mi or fe, preverbal particles which trigger the soft mutation:
The passive voice can be expressed with the verb cael "get" followed by the verb noun modified by a possessive adjective. For example:
The agent is introduced with the preposition gan "with, by".[1] A "static passive", expressing the result of an action, can be expressed with the verb bod "be" followed by the preposition wedi "after" and, again, the verbal noun modified by possessive adjective. For example:
The prepositional phrase can also be used attributively:
The construction can be negated by replacing wedi with heb "without".[2]
There are two relative pronouns in Welsh, a and y. A is used in 'direct' relative clauses, i.e. those where the relativised element is the subject of its clause or the direct object of an inflected verb (rather than a periphrastic construction with bod).
A cannot coexist with mae. Instead, a special form, sydd or sy, is used:
In all other cases, known as 'indirect' relative clauses - those where the relativised element is genitival or the object of a preposition, y, the complementizer, is used.
Note that because the object of a verbnoun is genitival, all periphrastic constructions take y.
Welsh has a number of complementizers used under different circumstances. Y is used in all non-focused affirmative clauses other than the present periphrastic with bod:
The present periphrastic with bod tends to use a construction with the verbnoun bod in a genitival construction with the subject of the subordinate clause:
Negative clauses can be made negative normally or by replacing y with na:
Focused clauses are complementized with mai or taw:
Focused clauses can be made negative with nad, or made negative normally (with mai nid or mai dim):
|
||||||||||